Irish High Crosses: An Overview
The ‘ringed head’ of the cross is probably the defining feature of the Irish high cross in the mind of the public. But what does it mean?
Irish high crosses – so-called ‘Celtic Crosses’ - based on the fact that, as well as in Ireland, they are found in Cornwall, Wales, the Isle of Man, and western Scotland (Moss et al, 143) - are often considered among the preeminent achievements of Irish artistry in the middle ages. Harbison describes them as ‘one of Ireland’s greatest contributions to European art of the early middle ages’ (Harbison 2013, 9). High crosses, as the name suggests, are Christian monuments depicting, in varying styles, a cross, referencing, but not always depicting, the crucifixion of Christ and are a feature of many of the monasteries which abounded in pre-Norman early medieval Ireland. They would appear to be an evolution from earlier depictions of the cross, such as simpler ‘cross decorated pillars’ (O’Brien and Harbison, 79) and ‘cross-shaped stone slabs like that at Carndonagh Co. Donegal’ (Flanagan 1992, 113).
High crosses do not seem to have served a singular purpose, rather they appear to have served a number of functions. Early texts suggest that they were used as boundary markers, to commemorate certain events, as way-markers and also to mark the extent of monastic holdings or areas of sanctuary (Moss et al 2014, 146). However, the primary purpose and function of these crosses must surely have been religious in nature (Harbison 2013, 12). It has been suggested that the crosses served a similar purpose as church frescos did in continental Europe, namely to induce piety and prayerful contemplation by the beholder, as well as to educate them (Harbison 2013, 12). It seems likely that the high crosses were painted (Harbison 2013, 12). Crosses are mentioned in a number of Saint’s Lives (hagiographies) within a context of private prayer and devotions taking place at crosses (Moss et al 2014, 146). However, it would be somewhat naïve to view these crosses as solely serving religious purposes rather than also having temporal, and political, ends which were undoubtedly a factor in the minds of the patrons behind these masterpieces (Stalley 2020, 3), several of whom appear to have been Kings, as evidenced by the names of several who are commemorated on a number of crosses (Harbison 2013, 14).
The ‘classic’ high cross has a number of typical characteristics: firstly, they tend to have a stepped, socketed base which the main cross shaft slots into. The cross itself has, in the majority of cases but not all, a hollow ringed head. The crosses tend to be large, with the tallest cross reaching 23 feet in height (the west/tall cross at Monasterboice, see Fig 1). The crosses tend to be decorated, either with patterns, sculptural depictions of figures or a combination of both. Finally, many (although some are missing such as at Duleek, see Fig 2) have a ‘house-shaped’ top, or ‘finial’ (Stout 2017, 146).
The ‘ringed head’ of the cross is probably the defining feature of the Irish high cross in the minds of the public. But what does it mean? There have been a number of suggestions as to the meaning of the ‘ringed cross’ over the years, varying from the practical (as a structural feature to support the arms) to the rather more romantic and fanciful (that they were a Christianised version of the form depicted in pagan Bronze Age sun-disks). However, it seems likely that the ‘ringed cross’ is a depiction of a Roman wreath (a traditional and well-known symbol of victory) superimposed onto the cross, symbolising Christ’s victory over death. This interpretation would seem all but confirmed by the existence of a sixth-century Egyptian textile which depicts a wreath superimposed on the cross, which while not identical to the high cross, is immediately recognisable as being very similar, and a far more likely inspiration for the high cross than some of the other suggestions (Stalley 2020, 10-11). So, it would seem that this most famous aspect of the form of the Irish high cross originated firmly within the realm of imported Christian thought and theology, rather than as a remnant or mash-up of Irish pagan iconography.
It would seem that the Irish high crosses are skeuomorphic, that is to say, that although they are stone, they retain features that would seem to be borrowed, or would have featured, on crosses made of a different medium such as wood covered in bronze (Harbison 2013, 11). There is significant evidence that high crosses had similar, ringed timber ancestors, as well as being influenced by decorative metalwork (Stalley 2020, 14). As to why the decision was made to build stone crosses – a very arduous and presumably expensive process compared to carving and building timber ones - we cannot be sure. One enduring suggestion is the arrival of the Vikings and the associated violence and raids may have led to a desire for a more permanent and durable cross, one of stone, which unlike wooden or metal forms, would not, and could not, be carried off or so easily destroyed (Stout 2017, 152).
While the preceding paragraphs have discussed the ‘classic’ form of a high cross, not all follow such a template. Indeed, in many ways, this classic form is a culmination of a period of development in form over a significant period of time, to such a degree that the extant crosses may be broken into several general groups of crosses which share similar styles and characteristics, yet all seem to represent stages of development of the form. It has been suggested that these differences represent distinct chronological stages in the development of the form of the high cross, but of this, we cannot be sure – these differences may rather be geographical based ‘fashions’ rather than separate lineal links in a chronological chain. Nevertheless, it is helpful to examine these groups of crosses, as their differences do reveal a great deal about the development of the high cross as a whole, even if we cannot be precisely sure of the chronology.
The Ossory Crosses
These distinctive crosses are found in counties Kilkenny and Tipperary – formerly the Kingdom of Ossory, from which they take their name.
These crosses include two crosses (and the base of a third cross) at Ahenny (see fig 4), four crosses at Kilkieran, single crosses at Kilree and Killamery as well as a number of other cross bases (Moss et al 2014, 147). These crosses are distinct from other high crosses in a number of ways. The most obvious is the unique large conical tops of some of the crosses (as distinct from the ‘classic’ filial mentioned previously), the deep mouldings of the articulated edges of the cross, as well as having curious decorative bosses (Moss et al, 147).
It is suggested that these crosses are the closest stone crosses in form to their wooden predecessors, and hence among the earliest, because they include a number of features that would have been necessary on wooden crosses, but redundant on stone crosses. An example of this are the aforementioned bosses which may be representative of rivets which would have necessarily featured on wooden crosses and/or studs found on metalwork such as the Ardagh Chalice (Moss et al 2014, 148).
Regarding the ornamentation of these crosses, the carvings tend to be in ‘low relief’ with the shafts being ‘almost all covered in various forms of abstract ornament – fret, spirals and interlace – either arranged in panels or extended loosely across the surface’ with ‘figurative carving mainly restricted to the base’ (Moss et al 2014, 147).
Traditionally, because of the form of these crosses, they were held to be dated to the 8th century (hence the earliest examples), but it has been suggested in recent times that they date from the latter half of the 9th century (Harbison 2013, 15). Regardless of the precise date, the form and decoration of this group of crosses does strongly point to wooden and metal predecessors, giving us a glimpse into the origins of the high cross.
The Barrow Crosses
These granite crosses (or fragments of same) are found in counties Kildare, Carlow, and Kilkenny at Moone, Castledermot, Old Kilcullen, Graiguenamanagh, Ullard, Newtown and St Mullins (Moss et al 2014, 148). While there remains considerable abstract art on these crosses, the ‘most distinctive’ aspect of them is the figurative sculpture depicting ‘iconography drawn from the Old and New Testaments and from hagiography’ (Moss et al 2014, 148). The high cross at Castledermot in Co. Kildare, for example, depicts Adam and Eve on its east face head (Harbison 2013, 30). While there is considerable debate about where exactly these crosses fit within the overall chronology - they have often been viewed as being an intermediate group, mainly because figures are depicted as rather basic ‘flat geometric shapes’ - succeeding the Ossory crosses and preceding the detailed Scriptural crosses, but their dating remains ‘speculative’ (Moss et al 2014, 148-149).
The Scriptural Crosses
The Scriptural Crosses are a group of crosses located across Leinster. These crosses are most famous for their ‘lively and naturalistic figure carving’ (Moss et al 2014, 153). These crosses are perhaps best exemplified by the three remaining crosses at Monasterboice in County Louth.
Muiredach’s Cross (see Fig 4) is probably the most famous of all the Irish high crosses and is considered by many to be the finest due to its size, intricacy, and clarity of detail of the figure sculpture and associated biblical scenes. In many ways, it is the embodiment of the earlier mentioned ‘classic’ high cross. Dating from the 9/10th century and standing 5.2 meters in height, 2.14 meters at its widest (Stout 2017, 148) it includes depictions of the second coming of Christ, the transfiguration, the handing of the key to St. Peter, the flagellation, the crucifixion, the weighing of souls, as well as other more curious depictions such as two men pulling each other’s beards (Harbison 2013, 89-91). Unlike on many other high crosses, the level of detail of the figures enables a visitor today, over a thousand years after its erection, to easily make out most of the panels and what they depict. On the base of the cross is inscribed ‘Or do Muiredach las ndernad I chros – a prayer for Muiredach by whom this cross was made’ (Stout 2017, 148) from which the cross takes its name. Such is the level of skill – and similarity – of this and other crosses within this group, Stalley convincingly argues that a number of them were carved by the same hand (or certainly school), by the ‘Muiredach master’ in the 9th century (Stalley 2020 preface, 8). This conclusion gives us an insight into how the crosses were made – likely commissioned by local powers (be they Kings or religious leaders such as Bishops or Abbots) artists travelled from place to place to carry out these great works of art – which may provide an explanation for the significant differences in styles between groups of crosses (different artists/schools), if this can no longer be explained by supposed differences in age.
Conclusion
While further large crosses were erected in the 12th century (and indeed long after in the form of market crosses and such) these tended to take different forms to the ‘classic’ Irish high cross, omitting the ringed cross entirely. An example of this is the cross at Cashel, where Christ is depicted as a large figure in high relief crucified on the cross (Harbison 2013, 27) – this marks a distinct departure from the earlier multi-paneled scriptural style crosses, and a step in the direction of the more modern crucifix centred solely on Christ. This was not the end of the Irish high cross however, in the 19th century and onwards, because of its many unique features, and indeed beauty, it became almost a symbol of Ireland and Irishness. Modern iterations of the ringed high cross can be found in every graveyard across Ireland, and indeed across the world. Should there be any significant Irish community, or a memorial dedicated to an Irish cause, there is a very good chance it will take the form of a high cross, a demonstration of the enduring beauty and legacy of these great pieces of medieval Irish art.
Bibliography
Flanagan, Laurence. 1992 A Dictionary of Irish Archaeology. Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Ltd.
Harbison, Peter. 2013 Irish High Crosses: With the Figure Sculptures Explained. New Edition, Drogheda Ireland, The Boyne Valley Honey Company.
Harbison, Peter, and Jacqueline O’Brien. 1996 Ancient Ireland: From Prehistory to the Middle Ages. London, Weidenfield & Nicolson.
Moss, Rachel (editor). 2014 Medieval c. 400–c. 1600: Art and Architecture of Ireland Volume 1. Paul Mellon Centre.
Stalley, Roger. 2020 Early Irish Sculpture and the Art of the High Crosses. Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art.
Stout, Matthew. 2017 Early Medieval Ireland 431–1169. Ireland, Wordwell Books.